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GLP-1

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Also called: GLP-1 + AOD-9604, GLP-1 peptide, GLP-1 with Vitamin B12/B6

By The Health Stacks Research TeamUpdated September 12, 2026

GLP-1 is a small protein made in the body that helps control how much food you eat. It works like a message sent from the gut to the brain to tell you that you are full. Doctors look at this substance to help people with health problems related to sugar and weight. It is often grouped with other body signals like leptin and insulin that manage hunger and energy.

The main job of GLP-1 is to slow down how fast food leaves the stomach and to tell the pancreas to release insulin. This helps lower the amount of sugar in the blood after a meal. Because it makes you feel full, it is used to help people eat less and manage their weight better. It works closely with other hormones to keep the body's energy in balance.

Scientists are still studying the best ways to use this substance for different health needs. While it is helpful for blood sugar and weight, researchers are still learning about all its effects on the body. There is also a lot of focus on how to make and measure this protein correctly in labs. It is important to follow medical advice when using treatments that affect hunger hormones.

ApprovedApproved by a regulator (e.g. FDA) for a specific medical use — the highest research-status tier. High confidence60–79 — backed by solid sources with good corroboration across multiple citations.

Benefits

What GLP-1 Helps With

The main themes across 304 research studies, in plain language.

Glycemic & metabolic

Blood sugar regulation

95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources5Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 96 underlying claims

Research suggests these mechanisms help stabilize blood sugar levels by enhancing insulin secretion and sensitivity in response to glucose.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Drug formulation & stability

72/100Rated 72/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 51 underlying claims

Research focuses on extending the stability and half-life of therapeutic peptides for improved delivery.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Pancreatic beta-cell health

90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 42 underlying claims

Laboratory studies suggest these compounds may help preserve insulin-producing cells in the pancreas and reduce cellular stress.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Neuroprotection & cognitive

Neuroprotection & cognition

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 27 underlying claims

Evidence suggests potential benefits for brain health, including protection against inflammation, plaque buildup, and cognitive decline.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Addiction & reward modulation

90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 10 underlying claims

Preliminary research suggests potential to dampen brain reward pathways associated with cravings for substances like nicotine and alcohol.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Renal & hepatic

Liver health & metabolism

60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 15 underlying claims

Evidence points to potential benefits for liver metabolism, including the reduction of fat accumulation and improved lipid profiles.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Kidney function support

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 8 underlying claims

Studies indicate potential to support kidney health and reduce the risk of disease progression.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Musculoskeletal support

60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources2Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 9 underlying claims

Research suggests potential roles in supporting bone density, joint health, and muscle function.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Gastrointestinal motility

95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources4Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 24 underlying claims

Research suggests a role in slowing the emptying of the stomach and regulating gut movement.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Anti-inflammatory effects

90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 18 underlying claims

Research indicates the ability to lower inflammatory markers and modulate immune responses in various tissues.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Cellular defense & survival

90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 18 underlying claims

Studies suggest mechanisms that protect cells from stress, damage, and programmed cell death.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Weight management & appetite

95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 86 underlying claims

Studies indicate effects on reducing appetite, slowing digestion, and decreasing food intake to support weight loss.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Cardiovascular protection

90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources4Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 28 underlying claims

Research points to protective effects on the heart and blood vessels, including improved function and reduced risk of major adverse events.

Research examplesBest source ↗

Sleep & breathing disorders

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sources2Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →· 2 underlying claims

Emerging clinical evidence is exploring potential benefits for conditions like obstructive sleep apnea.

Research examplesBest source ↗

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How People Use It

1 reported routine — each line links to the source it came from.

From published sources

Routines as reported in peer-reviewed papers, clinical guidance, or vetted media — each linked to the source it came from.

SubQ

  • Oral solid dosage form (tablet core or minitablet with immediate release coating) 90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →↗ source

mg vs mcg: one milligram (mg) equals 1,000 micrograms (mcg) — multiply by 1,000 going from mg to mcg, divide by 1,000 going from mcg to mg. Mixing the two up is a thousand-fold dosing error: 1 mg taken instead of 1 mcg is a 1,000× overdose; 1 mcg instead of 1 mg is a 1,000× underdose. Always double-check the unit label and the decimal place.

Honest expectations

What GLP-1 doesn’t do

What the sourced research says it doesn’t do — as notable as what it does.

Safety

Known Side Effects

Adverse effects reported in the research and by community use.

  • VomittingMild 95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →macmillan.princeton.edu
  • GI side effectsMild 95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →macmillan.princeton.edu
  • Aversive gastrointestinal side effectsModerate 90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →jci.org
  • Nausea and vomitingModerate 90/100Rated 90/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →jci.org
  • Lowered blood glucose levelsModerate 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  • Partial beta-cell lossSevere 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  • Moderate hyperglycemiaModerate 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  • Reduced thirstMild 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →health.osu.edu
  • FaintingSevere 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →health.osu.edu
  • FallsSevere 85/100Rated 85/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →health.osu.edu
  • OverdoseSevere 80/100Rated 80/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →kumc.edu
  • Acute pancreatitisModerate 75/100Rated 75/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →pancreapedia.org
  • Loss of lean muscle massModerate 75/100Rated 75/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →kumc.edu
  • Kidney problemsSevere 75/100Rated 75/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →medicare.chir.georgetown.edu
  • Pancreas problemsSevere 75/100Rated 75/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →medicare.chir.georgetown.edu
  • Gastrointestinal problemsModerate 75/100Rated 75/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →medicare.chir.georgetown.edu
  • Cibenzoline-induced hypoglycemiaSevere 72/100Rated 72/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →springermedicine.com
  • Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related hypophysitisSevere 72/100Rated 72/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →springermedicine.com
  • Risks of side effects from frequent dosing of short half-life drugsModerate 70/100Rated 70/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →patents.google.com
  • HypoglycemiaModerateReported in 3 sources 70/100Rated 70/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources3Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →patents.google.compoisonhelp.orgelliemd.com
  • VomitingMildReported in 13 sources 70/100Rated 70/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources13Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →health.osu.edupatents.google.comhealth.yahoo.comblog.profil.com+9
  • NauseaMildReported in 30 sources 70/100Rated 70/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources30Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →health.osu.edumacmillan.princeton.edupatents.google.comglucagon.com+26
  • Nutritional deficienciesModerate 70/100Rated 70/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →pharmaphorum.com
  • Potential risk of pancreatic cancerSevere 60/100Rated 60/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →pancreapedia.org
  • Attenuated insulin secretion following test meal ingestionMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Weight lossMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Increased muscle sympathetic nerve activityMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Acute hypothermiaModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Compensatory reduction in energy expenditureMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Significant weight loss (>10%) during chemotherapyModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Increased number of intestinal polypsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Decreased bone mineral density and quality following ovariectomyModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Rapid tachyphylaxis of GLP-1-induced deceleration of gastric emptyingModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Reduction in TSH levelsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Thyroid C-cell activation and proliferationModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Increased heart rateMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Hypoglycemia in fasted healthy subjectsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Reactive hypoglycemia post-gastrectomy and post-gastric bypassModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Reactive hypoglycemia in children after Nissen fundoplicationModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Hypoglycemia when combined with sulfonylurea agentsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Reactive hypoglycemia from neuroendocrine tumor secreting GLP-1Severe 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Gastrointestinal adverse eventsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Gastrointestinal side effectsModerateReported in 4 sources 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources4Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.comblog.profil.comelliemd.comseekpeptides.com
  • Hypoglycemia (comparatively less with GLP-1 vs standard therapy)Mild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Rare allergic reactions including mild anaphylaxisSevere 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Peritracheal edema following captopril administration in DPP-4 deficient ratsModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Inflammation-associated paw edema potentiated by DPP-4 inhibitionModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Enhanced severity of experimental inflammation in CD26-/- miceModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Pioglitazone reduced bone mineral density and bone qualityModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Pioglitazone caused significant weight gain and fat accumulationMild 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemiaSevere 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Nesidioblastosis (islet hyperplasia)Severe 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • InsulinomaSevere 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • Dumping syndromeModerate 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com
  • NeuroglycopeniaSevere 60/100Rated 60/100Source typeSpecialist communityIndependent sources1Every claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →glucagon.com

Reported in research and community sources — not exhaustive. Discontinue use and consult a healthcare professional if side effects occur.

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Timeline

History & Milestones

Key moments in GLP-1’s research and regulatory timeline — sourced and dated.

  1. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1)PublicationDec 1, 2019
    Related:GLP-1
    95/100Rated 95/100Source typePeer-reviewed studyIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →↗ source

News

Latest on GLP-1

Dated, sourced reporting that mentions GLP-1.

ResearchSep 11, 2026

Browse Articles | International Journal of Obesity

This journal listing includes several articles touching on obesity pharmacotherapy, most notably a systematic review and meta-analysis of subcutaneous semaglutide's effects on weight loss and inflammatory markers in adults with overweight or obesity without diabetes. Additional items examine GLP-1 receptor agonists from a rheumatological perspective and self-medication with GLP-1 drugs among Brazilian adults. The listing also covers broader obesity research, including bariatric surgery positioning and epidemiological studies.

72/100Rated 72/100Source typeEstablished referenceIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →Read →
ResearchAug 24, 2026

Semaglutide’s heart benefits may partly involve reduced inflammation

New research suggests that semaglutide reduces the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) not only through weight loss but also by lowering systemic inflammation. A study of over 17,000 patients found that reductions in the inflammatory biomarker hs-CRP accounted for roughly 28% of the drug's cardiovascular benefit. This indicates that semaglutide's mechanism for heart protection involves direct anti-inflammatory effects independent of glycemic control or body weight reduction.

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →Read →
MarketAug 10, 2026

Small Businesses Could Face Double-Digit Premium Hikes in 2027 - MedCity News

An analysis of rate filings from small group insurers indicates that small businesses may face a median premium increase of 14% in 2027. The filings identify rising healthcare costs and increased utilization as primary factors, specifically highlighting the financial impact of specialty drugs. Insurers explicitly cite GLP-1 medications as a significant driver behind these escalating costs and subsequent premium hikes.

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →Read →
MarketJul 31, 2026

Welcome to Novo Nordisk in the U.S. | Novo Nordisk U.S. Website

Novo Nordisk's U.S. news portal highlights several key developments regarding its peptide-based portfolio. The company is actively challenging Eli Lilly's advertising campaigns regarding GLP-1 therapies, signaling ongoing market competition. Additionally, Novo Nordisk reported positive Phase 3 results for its hemophilia A drug denecimig and expanded access to Wegovy for Medicare beneficiaries.

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →Read →
RegulatoryJul 31, 2026

Novo Nordisk

Novo Nordisk has announced two major regulatory milestones in the European Union. The company received approval for an oral version of its weight management drug Wegovy, as well as a new 7.2 mg dose pen. Additionally, the company is taking legal action against Eli Lilly regarding misleading GLP-1 advertising campaigns.

50/100Rated 50/100Source typeUnclassified sourceIndependent sourcesstill being verifiedEvery claim links to the page it came from, and stronger sources rate higher. Full methodology →Read →

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